Table of Contents

Preface xiv
Acknowledgements xvi
Introduction
1 (8)
Causes of Postharvest Losses
1 (1)
Current Status of LP
1 (2)
Comparison of LP and CA
3 (1)
History of CA and LP Storage
3 (1)
LP Research and Development
4 (1)
Is LP More Complicated than CA?
4 (2)
LP Patent Protection and Trade Secrets
6 (3)
Origins of the LP Concept
9 (9)
The LP Apparatus
9 (1)
Evidence that Gas Exchange in Fruits is Limited by an Air Phase
10 (3)
Testing for Ethylene-controlled Developmental Processes
13 (2)
Involvement of Other Gases and Volatile Substances
15 (1)
Converting the LP Test Apparatus into a Storage System
15 (1)
Who Invented Hypobaric Storage?
15 (3)
Gas and Vapour Mass Transport
18 (63)
Resistance Network
18 (2)
Effect of pH and Temperature on Gas Exchange through Bio-membranes
20 (3)
Cytosol Resistance
23 (1)
Permeability of the Cell Wall
23 (1)
Resistance of the Mitochondria
23 (1)
Total Gas Transport Resistance
24 (1)
Kinetics of Gas Equilibration between Cells, the Intercellular System and Atmosphere
24 (3)
Measuring the Air Phase Resistance Coefficient
27 (1)
O2, CO2 and Ethylene Exchange between Cell Fluid and Intercellular Air
28 (1)
Dependence of Ethylene Action on the IEC
29 (6)
NH3 Exchange between the Apoplast and Intercellular Air
35 (2)
Jamin's Chains: the Effect of Liquid Water on Intercellular Gas Transport
37 (2)
Cell Leakage during Senescence and Ripening
39 (5)
Measuring the Intercellular Gas Concentrations
44 (2)
Vacuum-extraction Errors
46 (2)
Intercellular Gas Transport
48 (3)
Axial Diffusion of Intercellular Gases
51 (1)
Stomates and Lenticles
52 (4)
Pedicel-end Stem Scar
56 (4)
Cuticular Gas Exchange
60 (2)
Effect of LP on NH3 Efflux
62 (1)
Changes in Gas Exchange during Storage
63 (1)
Resistance of Boxes and Wraps
63 (1)
Effect of LP on Mass Transport through Air Phases
64 (1)
Effect of LP on Vapour Mass Transport
65 (1)
LP Does Not Remove Flavour and Aroma Volatiles from Fruits
66 (1)
Examples
67 (14)
Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia and Cyanide
81 (51)
Measuring Respiration and Ethylene Production under Hypobaric Conditions
81 (2)
Effect of O2 on Respiration
83 (8)
Low [O2] and High [CO2] Injury
91 (2)
Effect of O2 on Ethylene Production
93 (1)
Effect of O2 on Ethylene Action
94 (1)
Effect of O2 on Ascorbic Acid Oxidation
95 (2)
Effect of Hypoxia on Ethylene Production, Fruit Softening, ACC Accumulation and Ethylene-induced Enzyme Activity
97 (1)
Advantages of a CO2-free Atmosphere
97 (1)
Effect of CO2 on Respiration
98 (1)
Effect of CO2 on Ethylene Production
98 (2)
CO2 as an Activator, Regulator and Inhibitor of Enzymatic Reactions
100 (1)
Effect of CO2 on Ethylene Action and Metabolism
101 (5)
Effect of CO2 on Succinic Acid Accumulation
106 (2)
Effect of CO2 on Ascorbic Acid Content
108 (1)
Effect of CO2 on Stomatal Action
109 (4)
Effect of CO2 on Cellular pH
113 (7)
Ammonia Toxicity
120 (1)
Ammonia Incorporation into Organic Compounds
121 (1)
Ammonia Formation
122 (1)
Ammonia Production during Flower Fading and Leaf Senescence
123 (2)
Cyanide
125 (2)
Examples
127 (5)
Ethylene
132 (108)
Biosynthetic Pathway
132 (3)
Effect of Temperature on Ethylene Production and Perception
135 (2)
Cellular Localization of EFE
137 (3)
Effect of Ethylene on Respiration
140 (1)
Climacteric and Non-climacteric Fruits
141 (4)
Systems 1 and 2 Ethylene Production
145 (1)
Auto-inhibition of System 1 Ethylene Production
145 (2)
Auto-stimulation of System 2 Ethylene Production
147 (1)
Significance of the Pre-climacteric IEC
148 (6)
Effect of Harvest
154 (10)
Ethylene Receptor
164 (8)
Ethylene Transduction Pathway
172 (1)
Regulation of Ethylene Sensitivity
173 (4)
Initiation of Ripening in Climacteric Fruits
177 (4)
Ethylene-independent Developmental Regulation of Ripening in Climacteric Fruits
181 (5)
Ripening in Non-climacteric Fruits
186 (2)
Circadian Rhythms of Ethylene Production
188 (5)
Stress-induced Ethylene Production
193 (1)
Auxin-induced Ethylene Production
194 (5)
Effect of Ethylene on Polar Auxin Transport
199 (1)
Effect of Ethylene on Auxin Synthesis and Metabolism
199 (1)
Gravity-dependent Ethylene Action
200 (5)
Effect of Ethylene on Auxin Gravitransport
205 (5)
The `Triple Response' of Seedlings
210 (3)
Ethylene-induced Epinasty
213 (2)
Effect of Ethylene on Correlative Inhibition
215 (4)
Effect of Ethylene on Microfibrillar and Microtubular Orientation
219 (2)
Ethylene-induced Leaf Senescence
221 (3)
Role of Ethylene in Abscission
224 (1)
Role of Ethylene in Flower Fading
225 (6)
Induction of Physiological Disorders by Ethylene
231 (1)
Effect of Ethylene on Stomatal Opening
232 (1)
Effect of Ethylene on Ascorbic Acid Content
232 (1)
Examples
232 (8)
Heat Transfer and Water Loss
240 (62)
Dependence of Water Loss on Respiratory Heat
241 (7)
The Cuticle
248 (2)
Dependence of Transpirational Resistance on Relative Humidity
250 (2)
Water-retentive Packaging
252 (1)
Dependence of Transpirational Resistance on Pressure
253 (3)
Radial Transport of Respiratory Heat
256 (2)
Cellular Water Conductance
258 (1)
Apoplastic Water Transport
259 (1)
Symplastic Cell-to-cell Water Transport
259 (1)
Water Vapour Transport through the Intercellular System
260 (3)
Skin Shrivel and `Peel Puffing'
263 (2)
Dimensionless Groups used for Convective Heat Transfer Calculations
265 (2)
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Free Convection at Atmospheric Pressure
267 (1)
Radiative Couplings
268 (2)
Evaporative Couplings
270 (1)
Heat Transfer in CA Storage at Atmospheric Pressure
270 (2)
Controlling Water Loss at Atmospheric Pressure
272 (1)
LP Heat Sources
273 (1)
Humidity Control in LP
273 (2)
LP Stacking Arrangements
275 (4)
Forced Convection in LP
279 (1)
Effect of LP on Free Convective Heat Transfer
280 (2)
Thermal Balance under Hypobaric Conditions
282 (4)
Cool down under Hypobaric Conditions
286 (3)
Examples
289 (13)
Postharvest Diseases and Physiological Disorders
302 (31)
Direct Effects of O2 on Microbial Growth
302 (3)
Direct Effects of CO2 on Microbial Growth
305 (2)
Combined Direct Effects of CO2 and O2 on Microbial Growth
307 (1)
Microbial Development in LP
308 (5)
Ripening, Ageing and Senescence Influence the Host's Susceptibility to Disease
313 (1)
Ethylene
313 (1)
Phytoalexins and Anti-fungal Compounds
314 (3)
Water Condensation
317 (1)
Hypochlorous Acid Vapour
318 (3)
Chilling Injury
321 (6)
Physiological Disorders other than Chilling Injury
327 (2)
Examples
329 (4)
Insect Quarantine
333 (17)
Effect of High Temperature
333 (3)
Effect of Low Temperature
336 (1)
Dependence of Insect O2 Consumption on Temperature, [O2] and [CO2]
336 (1)
Lethal Effects of High [CO2], Low [O2] and Desiccation
337 (2)
The Gas Exchange System of Insects
339 (5)
Comparison of the Gas Exchange Systems of Insects and Plants
344 (1)
Effect of a Low Pressure on Insect Mortality
345 (5)
Technical Difficulties Associated with Laboratory Hypobaric Research
350 (21)
Does the Inability to Provide CO2 Detract from LP Storage?
351 (1)
Factors Influencing Weight Loss in a Laboratory Hypobaric Experiment
351 (2)
Factors Determining the Steady-state Relative Humidity
353 (4)
Measuring the Relative Humidity
357 (1)
Other Sources of Moisture
357 (1)
Chamber Leak Rate
358 (1)
Chamber Temperature Uniformity
359 (3)
Elevating the Humidity
362 (1)
Mylar Radiation Shielding
363 (2)
Air Change Rate
365 (1)
Design of a Laboratory Apparatus
365 (1)
Measuring the Pressure
365 (1)
Examples
366 (5)
Horticultural Commodity Requirements
371 (69)
Fruits
372 (1)
Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.), American Summer Pearmain, Jonathan, Cox Orange, Red King, Golden Delicious, Boskoop, Schweizer Glockenapfel, McIntosh, Red Delicious, Ida Red, Spartan, Staymen, Northern Spy, Red Rome, Lodi, Empire, Ontario
372 (3)
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), var. Large Early Montgament
375 (1)
Avocado (Persea americana Mill.), Choquette, Waldin, Booth 8, Lula, Hass
376 (2)
Banana (Musa paradisica var. Sapientum), Lacatan, Valery, Gros Michel and Dwarf Cavendish
378 (2)
Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), var. Jersey
380 (1)
Cantaloupe (Cucumis melo L.), cv. Earl's Favourite
381 (1)
Carambola (Averrhoa carambola Linn.)
381 (1)
Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Miller)
381 (1)
Cherry, Sweet (Prunus avium L.) cvs Bing, Lambert, Grosse Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, Emperor Francis, Picota
382 (1)
Cherry, Barbados (Malpighia glabra L.) and Surinam (Eugenia uniflora L.)
383 (1)
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.)
383 (1)
Currant (Ribes vulgare Lam.), Red, White and Black
383 (1)
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.), American, European and var. Red Emperor
384 (1)
Grapefruit (Citrus x paradisi Macfad.), Florida Ruby Red, Florida Marsh White, Texas Ruby Red
384 (1)
Guava (Psidium guajava L.)
385 (1)
Honeydew Melon (Cucumis melo L.)
386 (1)
Lime, Persian [Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle], var. Tahiti
386 (1)
Mango (Mangifera indica L.), cvs Haden, Irwin, Tommy Atkins, Kent, Keitt, Maya, Okrang
387 (2)
Nectarine (Prunus persica L.), var. Nectarina
389 (1)
Orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck), Valencia
389 (1)
Papaya (Carica papaya L.), var. Solo
390 (2)
Peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch.), cvs White Okubo, Cardinal, Red Haven, Gleason Early Elberta
392 (1)
Pear (Pyrus communis L.), cvs Bartlett, Clapp, Commice
393 (1)
Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.), var. Smooth Cayenne
393 (2)
Prune (Prunus domestica), cv. Richards Early Italian
395 (1)
Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.), cvs Tioga, Shasta, Florida 90, Donna, Z-5A, Long Island Jerseybelle, Cambridge Favourite
395 (2)
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), vars Homestead 2, Jupiter, Michigan-Ohio Hybrid, Heines Hochzucht, NM Super II, NM Milo I, Waldin, Ace
397 (2)
Vegetables
399 (1)
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.)
399 (1)
Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), Pole, Snap and Bush; cvs Improved Tendergreen, `McCaslan 42', Sprite
400 (2)
Beet Leaf (Beta vulgaris L.), var. Conditiva Alef
402 (1)
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. -- Italica Group)
402 (1)
Brussels Sprouts (Brassica oleracea L. -- Gemmifera Group)
403 (1)
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. -- Capitata Group), cv. Quick Green Storage
403 (1)
Carrot (Daucas carota L.)
404 (1)
Cauliflower (Brassica oleraceae L. -- Botrytis Group)
404 (1)
Celery, Transplants (Apium graveolens L.), cv. Utah 52--70
405 (1)
Corn, Sweet (Zea mays L.), cvs Iobelle, Florida Sweet, Wintergreen
405 (1)
Cress (Lepidium sativum L.)
406 (1)
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), var. Poinsett
407 (1)
Kohlrabi (Brassica caulorapa)
408 (1)
Leek (Allium ampeloprasum L.)
408 (1)
Lettuce (Latuca sativa L.), var. Iceberg
408 (2)
Mushroom [Agaricus bisporrus (Lge.)], cvs Golden Light, White Button, Shitake, Enokitake, Matsutake
410 (2)
Onion, Green (Allium cepa L.)
412 (1)
Onion, Dry (Allium cepa L.), cvs Autumn Spice, Rocket, Trapps #6
412 (1)
Parsley [Petroselinum sativum (Mill.) Nym.]
413 (1)
Pepper, Sweet (Capsicum annum L.), Neusiedler Ideal, Bellboy
414 (1)
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)
415 (1)
Radish (Raphanus sativa L.), var. Sativus
415 (1)
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)
415 (1)
Squash (Curcurbita maxima Duch.), var. Acorn; (Curcurbita pepo L. var. Melopepo Alef.); and Yellow Crookneck `Summer' Squash
416 (1)
Turnip (Brassica campestris L. -- Rapifera Group)
416 (1)
Cut Flowers, Cuttings and Potted Plants
417 (1)
Diseases of Cut Flowers
417 (1)
Alstroemeria, Cut Flower (Alstroemeria sp.)
417 (1)
Anthurium, Cut Flower (Anthurium sp.), var. Ozaki
417 (1)
Aster, China, Cut Flower (Callistephus chinensis)
418 (1)
Azalea, Potted Plant (Rhododendron sp.)
418 (1)
Carnation, Cut Flower (Dianthus caryophyllus L.), cvs White Sims (White), Linda (Pink), Scania (Red), Laddie and Various Other Colours
418 (4)
Chrysanthemum, Rooted and Non-rooted Cuttings (Chrysanthemum morifolium = Dendranthema morifolium), cvs Delaware, Neptune, Yellow Delaware, Blue Marble, Golden Anne, Bright Golden Anne, Regal Anne, Yellow Snowdown, Hurricane, Yellow Mandalay, Polaris, Fandango, Super White, Heyday, Rose Chip
422 (1)
Chrysanthemum, Cut Flower (Chrysanthemum morifolium = Dendranthema morifolium)
423 (1)
Chrysanthemum, Potted Plant (Chrysanthemum morifolium = Dendranthema morifolium)
424 (1)
Cuttings (Foliage and Woody)
425 (1)
Foliage Plants, Potted
426 (1)
Freesia, Cut Flower (Freesia sp.)
427 (1)
Fynbos, Cut Flower (Erica sparsa, Stoebe plumosa, Phylica imberbus)
427 (1)
Geranium, Cutting (Pelargonium x hortorum Bailey)
427 (1)
Geranium, Potted Plant (Pelargonium x hortorum Bailey), Red
427 (1)
Ginger, Red, Cut Flower (Alpinia purpuata)
428 (1)
Ginger, Wax, Cut Flower (Alpinia speciosa)
429 (1)
Gladiolus, Cut Flower (Gladiolus sp.)
429 (1)
Gypsophila, Cut Flower (Gypsophila sp.)
429 (1)
Heliconia, Cut Flower (Heliconia humilis, Heliconia latispatha)
430 (1)
Leucadendron, Cut Flower (Leucadendron argenteum), vars Pisa, Jubilee Crown
430 (1)
Liatris, Cut Flower (Liatris sp.)
430 (1)
Lily, Easter, Cut Flower (Lilium longiflorum speciosum rubrum)
430 (1)
Lily, Easter, Potted Plant (Lilium longiflorum speciosum rubrum)
430 (1)
Narcissus, Cut Flower (Narcissus sp.)
431 (1)
Orchid, Cut Flower (Vanda Agnes Joaquim)
431 (1)
Poppy, Cut Flower (Papaver sp.)
431 (1)
Protea, Cut Flower (Protea sp.), vars Eximia, Cardinal, Sylvia, Pink Ice, Renata, Repens
432 (1)
Rapeseed, Cut Flower (Brassica napus)
433 (1)
Rose, Cut Flower (Rosa sp.), `Sweetheart', `Tanbeedee Belinda', `Forever Yours', `Bacarra', `Merko Mercedes', `Sweet Promise', `Sonia', `Visa', `Madam Delbar', `Sandia', `Samantha', `Royalty', `Spanish Sun', `Town Crier'
433 (2)
Snapdragon, Cut Flower (Antirrhinum majus), `Promenade Crimson'
435 (1)
Statice, Cut Flower (Statice ameria)
436 (1)
Stock, Cut Flower (Malcomia maritima), Purple and Rose Red
436 (1)
Tulip, Cut Flower (Tulipa sp.)
436 (1)
Seeds [Apium graveolens var. Dulce (Celery), Brassica oleracea (Cabbage), Allium cepa (Onion)]
436 (1)
Tissue Cultures (Nicotiana tabacum `Wisconsin 38', Chrysanthemum x morifolium)
437 (1)
Pressure Cycling (Tomatoes, Bananas, Apples, Cabbage, Chrysanthemum Cuttings, Cut Carnation Blooms)
437 (1)
Mixed Loads (Cabbages, Carrots, Bananas, Tomatoes, Apples)
438 (2)
Meat Storage
440 (44)
Optimal LP Storage Condition for Meat
441 (1)
Partial Pressures of O2, CO2 and H2O Vapour Present in a VacuFreshSM Container during Meat Storage
442 (1)
Heat Transfer and Weight Loss
442 (2)
Packaging Parameters
444 (3)
Oxidation of Meat Pigments
447 (1)
Fat Oxidation
448 (1)
Meat Odour and Flavour
448 (1)
Microbial Spoilage under Aerobic Conditions
449 (1)
Microbial Spoilage under Anaerobic Conditions
450 (1)
Effect of CO2 on Microbial Spoilage
451 (2)
Microbiological Safety
453 (1)
Botulism
454 (1)
Temperature
455 (3)
Ice-crystal Formation
458 (1)
Humidity
459 (1)
Venting the Container
460 (1)
Tenderization and Ageing
460 (2)
Commodity Requirements
462 (1)
Beef
462 (2)
Chicken
464 (1)
Duck
465 (1)
Fish (Atlantic Cod, Gadus morhua; Atlantic Herring, Clupea harengus; Spot Fish, Leiostrous xanthurus; Atlantic Salmon, Salmo solar; Caesar Grunt, Haemulon carbonarium; Gray Snapper, Lutjanus griseus; Atlantic Mackerel, Scomber scombrus)
465 (6)
Horse Meat
471 (2)
Lamb
473 (2)
Pork
475 (1)
Shrimp (Panaeus setiferus)
476 (2)
Veal
478 (1)
Examples
478 (6)
Warehouse Design
484 (11)
Grumman's Hypobaric Warehouse
484 (1)
Alternative Steel-cylinder Design
484 (2)
Concrete Warehouse Designs
486 (1)
Boeing/Preload Design
486 (1)
Crom Corporation Design
487 (2)
University of Guelph Design
489 (3)
Concrete Masonry Corporation (CMC) Precast Concept
492 (1)
Inherent Thermal Problem in a Concrete Warehouse Design
493 (2)
Intermodal Container Design
495 (28)
Prototype No. 1
495 (1)
Prototype No. 2
496 (1)
Grumman's Dormavac Container
496 (2)
Grumman/Dormavac Structural Design
498 (1)
Grumman/Dormavac Mechanical Design
498 (3)
Defects in Grumman's Dormavac Design
501 (1)
General Description of the VacuFreshSM Container
502 (1)
VacuFreshSM Tank Container Specifications and Physical Parameters
503 (1)
Special Features
503 (3)
Interior Structures
506 (1)
VacuFreshSM Mechanical Equipment
507 (1)
Refrigeration System General Schematic
507 (3)
Heating Cycle
510 (1)
Temperature Modulation
510 (1)
Vacuum System General Schematic
510 (4)
Preventing Condensation in Cabinets, Conduits and Regulators
514 (1)
Vacuum-control Circuitry
515 (1)
Controlling the Pumping Speed
515 (1)
Detented Controller
515 (3)
Electronic Vacuum Gauge
518 (1)
Pressure Regulation
518 (1)
Momentary Test Buttons
519 (1)
Data Logger
519 (1)
TransVac
520 (1)
Example
521 (2)
Conclusions
523 (7)
Appendix -- Influence of LP on Physical, Biological and Chemical Parameters
530 (13)
Physical and Chemical Properties
530 (1)
Chemical Potential
530 (1)
Electrochemical Potential
531 (1)
Standard State
531 (1)
Hydrostatic Pressure, Water Activity and Osmotic Pressure
531 (1)
Osmoregulation
532 (1)
Water Potential of Liquid Water
532 (1)
Chemical Activity of Water
533 (1)
Water Vapour Pressure and Relative Humidity
533 (1)
Water Potential of Water Vapour in the Gas Phase
534 (1)
Humidity Control in an LP Container
534 (1)
Influence of Pressure and Water Vapour on the Partial Pressures of O2, CO2 and Other Gases Present in the Vacuum Tank's Gas Mixture
534 (1)
Diffusion in the Gas Phase
535 (1)
Definitions
535 (1)
Steady-state Equimolar Counter-diffusion in Gases
535 (1)
Steady-state Unidirectional Diffusion in Gases
536 (1)
Steady-state Equimolar Counter-diffusion in Liquids
537 (1)
Steady-state Unidirectional Diffusion in Liquids
537 (1)
Binary Diffusion Coefficient of Gases
537 (2)
Binary Diffusion Coefficient in Liquids
539 (1)
Influence of Water Vapour on Physical and Chemical Parameters
539 (1)
Viscosity of Water Vapour + Air Mixtures
540 (1)
Thermal Conductivity of Water Vapour + Air Mixtures
541 (1)
Heat Capacity of Water Vapour + Air Mixtures
541 (1)
Prandtl (Pr) and Reynolds (Re) Numbers of Water Vapour + Air Mixtures
541 (1)
Diffusion of a Dilute Gaseous Component in a Water Vapour + Air Mixtures
541 (1)
Effect of Air Partial Pressure on the Convective Film Coefficient for Condensation in a Water Vapour/Air Mixtures
542 (1)
References 543 (88)
Index 631

Hypobaric (low-pressure) storage offers considerable potential as a method to prevent postharvest loss of horticultural and other perishable commodities, such as fruit, vegetables, cut flowers and meat. Yet hitherto there has been no comprehensive evaluation and documentation of this method and its scientific basis.Written by the world's leading authority on hypobaric storage Postharvest Physiology and Hypobaric Storage of Fresh Produce fills this gap in the existing literature. The first part of the book provides a detailed account of the metabolic functions of gases, and the mechanisms of postharvest gas exchange, heat transfer and water loss in fresh produce. The effect of hypobaric conditions on each process is then considered, before a critical review of all available information on hypobaric storage. This includes horticultural commodity requirements, laboratory research, and the design of hypobaric warehouses and transportation containers.